education: Dictionary Information

Education n. 1 systematic instruction. 2 particular kind of or stage in education (a classical education; further education). 3 development of character or mental powers.  educational adj. educationally adv.

education: Geographic Locations

education: Historical Excerpts

c563-483 Education of higher caste China. Shamanism early belief Lao-tze, b. c604, founded mystic philosophy organized as religion





AND EDUCATION Crete. Emphasized mother goddess, nature priestesses performed ceremonials Greece. Zeus, ruler of Olympic pantheon Apollo (prophecy, patron of arts); Athena (wisdom); Ares (war); Poseidon (sea) Orphic, Eleusinian mysteries worshiped Dionysus, Demcter, fertility gods Olympic Games honored Zeus, began 776





Sociol organization h the development of agriculcommunities, new classes or s evolved, based upon wealth, tradition, and cultural or intelI talents; hunting societies, with ry prowess the basis for leaderwere divided into clans and ng Class. Supreme power rested ting, pharaoh, or ‘feudal’ monclosely succeeded by priesthood 5t in India, where Brahmans 1 a priest-dominated caste sysand nobles, landholders whose frequently were fieflike gifts of In Assyria, military group in lancy; businessmen of Phoenicia abylonia belonged to aristocracy. die Class. Composed of craftsuerchants, small farmers, scribes; minority of population. er Class. The masses, made up sants (serfs), renters, or tenants; d to return a fixed portion of ce to middle and upper classes exploited them; barely aclTieved :ence level; denied education; died by tradition and taboo; sub. enforced labor on dikes, canals,; works; city workers performed 1, domestic tasks. Slaves, lowest, mainly prisoners of war; treated ttels.





In 3000 years the religious beliefs of early civilkouons ranged from primitive dependence on polytheism, through Egyptian emphasis on life after death, to the ascetic faith of the Hindus, the mysticism of the Chinese Taoists, and the ethical monotheism of Judaism. The primitive tribal religions of agricultural communities developed into individual and personal relationships with the deity. Religion was the dominant force, politically, sodally, and culturally, in the life of ancient peoples. Priests assumed authority over education, schools were attached to temples, and sacred texts were the chief subjects of study. The Greeks were the only people who had independent secular schools.





EDUCATION Greece Following Homeric Age, emphasis placed on developing ‘whole man and on preparation for citizensliip; formal education ended with military service at age 20; primary education in literature, music, and athletics for most boys; importance placed on development of health, grace, and physical skill; qualification for full citizenship or holding of public office required further study in mathematics, science, literature, political science, and philosophy; no public schools on secondary level; private schools state-regulated and limited to wealthy. SPARTA. Education devoted exclusively to military training; emphasized courage, physical endurance, patriotism, Egypt and Middle East EGYPT, SUMER, ISRAEL. First scliools attached to temples, where priests instructed scribes in art of tvriting; early records largely limited to religious and administrative matters, especially financial; later Sumerian and Hebrew schools taught mathematics and specialized subjects leading to professions of medicine, priesthood, and architecture. Hebrew scribes, 6th century, studied newly codified law of Old Testament; became teachers, judges; in time, overshadowed priests. Asia CHINA. Dedicated to Confucian ideal of ‘gentleman, ’ the man destined for social leadership; trained in moral behavior, social habits and customs, as preservers of social order; education based primarily on study of Five Classics. INDIA. Training of Brahman caste devoted mainly to study of Veda; other subjects studied included phonetics, prosody, etymology, grammar, astronomy; mathematics, literature, use of arms included in curriculum at later date; boys of lower castes learned trades from fathers; laws regulated apprenticeships.





Egypt Egyptians first to make music an intrinsic part of life by use in war and peace, market place and temple; influenced all later music; diatonic scale used; early work supervised by priests and upper class; instruments, used only to accompany singers, mainly borrowed from Sumer sistrum (rattle), double clarinet (c2160) originated in Egypt; large choruses and orcliestras believed popular. Middle East SUMER. Seals and sieles of cSOOO show Lagash temple with dtoirmaster, instrumentalists, male and female singers; liturgical music developed; taught in school by early type of guild; chromatic scale used; instruments included woodwinds, the aulos (double-reed) , cithara, and harp; Sumerian hymn one of earliest extant wTitten in musical notation. HEBREWS. Early music strongly influenced by exile in Egypt; most music religious; cliaracterized by power and simplicity rather than sweetness; after 1000 brought music of ancient East to highest point of development in temple music; solo, choral, antiphonal singing and dance music; responsive singing of Old Testament verse; David, Biblical minstrel, probably played kinnoT (Hebrew form of lyre); wide range of instruments included shofar (ram’s horn trumpet), sackbut (trombone), dulcimer, organs, noisemakers. Greece Word music derived from Greek muses; signified for Greeks all intellectual, esthetic values; considered important factor in life from earliest history; music, poetry, dance closely linked in myths, religion; part of rites, especially bacchanalian, Orphic; Pythian Games, begun cIOOO, devoted to contest between festival hymn-tvriters using stringed or flute acconipaniment; ability to play musical instruments, to dance, or to sing highly regarded accomplishments; one-third of education devoted to musical art.





RELIGION AND EDUCATION





Education influenced by Greeks Indus, elementary schools Latin secondary grammar schools by 1st century Rhetoric and oratory emphasized professional schools prepared for law and. public life Greek or greek-trained teachers





Buddhism, wWch began as a refonn movement within Hinduism, developed info a separate faith and one of the world s great religions. confudanism and Taoism, considered both ethical philosophies and spiritual doctrines, remained the leading religions or ways of the spirit’ in P-hinfr. In Greece, concern with personal immortality led to popular acceptance of the Heusinian and Orphic mystery cults. Both Greek and eastern beliefs influenced Roman religion. In education, the Sophists were the outstanding teachers in Greece. Greek education was aimed primarily at the development of good dtizens. Great schools and universities were established at Athens and Alexandria.





EDUCATION Greece Sophists. Primarily humanist philosophers, important teachers; sought to equip young men for citizenship and public careers: rhetoric and grammar principal studies. Isocrates. Rhetorician; organized studies in school of rhetoric; developed literary type of education which became dominant feature of classical tradition. Academy. Founded by Plato for training political leaders; stressed education of universal range and value; goal, man of culture devoted to truth and knowledge; Plato emphasized education be suited to capacity of student, ablest given advanced training: liberal curriculum included mathematics as discipline: dialectics. Lyceum. Founded by Aristotle, brought under state supervision: researcli in natural sciences; logic, ethics. University of Athens. Evolved from philosophical schools of Stoics, Epicureans, and aristotle’s Lyceum. Egypt University of Alexandria. Library of some 700,000 manuscripts; books copied, collected, preserved, edited; first dictionaries; museum developed science, supported scholars at royal expense; Euclid and eratosthenes studied at the University; center of Greek, Hebrew, Egyptian, and Oriental learning, religion, and philosophy. Rome Modeled upon Hellenic education (after 3rd century); Indus (literarum) elementary school; Latin grammar schools trained youth from 12 to 16 years of age in rhetoric and oratory for public life; taught Seven Liberal Arts





fl. 500; Institutes of Grammar universities of Alexandria, Rhodes, Athens favored for higher education Hebrews. Compulsory education for boys





: ■-{ •OO-OO;-, : RELIGIO N AMD EDUCATION China. Buddhism spread rapidly Taoism reached peak ‘Seven Sages of Bamboo Grove’ Buddhist monasteries established Hui Yuan





333-416, founded Pure Land Sect of Buddhism Confucian Classics basis for civil service and education Popular education neglected India. mahayana-buddhism took over some practices of Hinduism saddharmapundarika





Chrislianity. cm established religion within a century after its origin, came to dominate the Western world. Economic and political instability in the Homan Empire proved favorable to the rapid spread of Christianity. By 500 persecution of the Christians had ended, Christian doctrine had been formulated, an effective church organization established, and divisive heresies suppressed. Education in the West changed from a classic intellectual preparation for secular living to a Church system of religious training. In India, Hinduism, after absorbing many buddhistideas, enjoyed a revival. Buddhism spread rapidly in China, where the Confucian classics become the basis of education.





Europe ROME. University of Rome founded during vespasian’s rule; instruction formal, little scientific or creative thought; salaries paid grammarians and rhetoricians; although Augustus had attempted to develop Roman education, many continued to attend Greek institutions of higher learning. CONSTANTINOPLE. University founded by emperor Theodosius; helped make city a center of Greek learning: preserved Greek science, literature, philosophy for ten centuries. HEBREWS. Compulsory elementary education ordered by high priest, Joshua ben Gamala, 64ad, for all males. Christian Schools. Pantaenus, converted Greek stoic, developed an important school of Christian theology at Alexandria; Greek learning used to interpret Scriptures and train leaders for service in Church. Clement. Greek theologian; succeeded Pantaenus as head of catechetical School, Alexandria; teacher of Origen; attempted to reconcile Christian and Greek thought. Donatus. Roman grammarian; author, Ars grammatica; standard text for Latin throughout Middle Ages. Priscian. Grammarian; autlior. The Institutes of Grammar, standard text; taught at Constantinople. Asia CHINA. Confucian classics basis for civil service and prerequisite to political office; examination system developed under Han; theory outlined in confucianist work Ta Hsiieh (The Great Learning); prescribed studies traditional, ritualistic, moralistic; nine years at college; regular examinations; learned enjoyed social prestige; popular education neglected; difficulty of language, examination system, and cost of lengthy education limited number of successful candidates. INDIA. Great universities at Benares; Taxila, Hindu center, leading medical school; Ujjain, astronomy: Ajanta, art; Nalanda, Buddhist center.





RELIGION AND EDUCATION





M hammed founded the last of the three great monotheistic religions in the earl 7 part of h 7lh century. By 632, Islam dominated most of Arabia and spread rapidly. In India h brilliant Brahman leader, Sankara, led in the reform of popular Hinduism. Shinto established in Japan following the introduction of several popular Buddhist sects. In Etnope the benedictine Order was founded and Pope Gregory declared Rome the capital of Ctolendom. In education the House of Wisdom was founded in Baghdad. Great libraries were established and translations made from Greek classics and scientific treatises of Persia and India. Cordova became the center of the intellectual life of Moslem Spctin.





Byzantine Empire Eastern Church. Dispute over use of images or ikons caused great controversy, 8th and 9th centuries; images restored 843, but political power of emperor over Church strengthened. Council of Constantinople. Patriarch Photius denounced Roman Church on matters of doctrine and papal primacy; widened schism between trvo Churches. Cyril and Methodius, Sts. Brothers played leading part in conversion of eastern European peoples; invented Glagolitic (Slavic) alphabet; made translations into Slavic language of important works (Roman Church used only Latin); made possible association of Slavic christianity with Constantinople. EDUCATION Byzantine Empire ‘Tyranny of the classics’-over-emphasis on preserving and interpreting classics of antiquity; little original or creative work; profound respect for study of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy; many important works preserved. Islam House of Wisdom, Baghdad. Center of intellectual life of Islam; founded 832; scholars studied, translated Aristotle, Plato, Euclid, neoplatonists, scientific treatises from India, Persia. SPAIN. Cordova. Greatest intellectual center of Europe; great libraries, mosque university; attracted scliolars from Christian Europe, Africa, Asia; study of Greek, Arabic, translations. Western Europe Boethius, Ancius. Christian scholar, translations of Aristotle; standard textbooks; essays on logic. Alcuin.’ English scholar, educator; headed Palace School established by Charlemagne; stimulated education in France, Germany; Grammar. Rhabanus Maurus. German theologian, scholar; pupil of Alcuin; famed encyclopedia, De universo; important in spreading carolingian learning.





RELIGION AND EDUCATION





Asia CHINA. Economic policy of latsserfaire implicit in Confucianism; function of state not pursuit of profit, but promotion of education in virtue for national well-being and social order; after Confucian revival, led by Chu Hsi (12th century), laissez-faire attitude toward economic doctrine restored; prevailed for many centuries; southern Sung capital, Hang-Chou, established 1138, magnificent center of culture and trade. JAPAN. Power of central government decreased during Heian period as private, landholdings increased; feudal manorial system, with estate managers as lords of holdings; military caste assumed leadership; vigorous econonaic growth in rural areas where tax-exempt holdings flourished; under Kamakura shogunate, Minamoto Yoritomo controlled lords of shden (great manors) by decentralizing control, granting lands and autonomous control to loyal followers; successful. Islam Greater part of trade continued within vast regions of Moslem world; increased trade through Mediterranean; competition developed with Venetians; it is estimated that during 12th century almost a thousand vessels were engaged in Levantine trade;; traders important in introduction ofmoney economy from East into Western Europe. Americas Mayan CMlixation. Second or New Empire entered a brilliant era with re-establishment of Chichdn Itxd (later Toltec capital) as center; during reign of Kukulcan, 1 2th century, Mayan civilization reached height; built city of Mayapdn,, capital until Toltec conquest; slavery existed; cotton used for clothing; magnificent design, decorative patterns developed later in textile industry; feathers popular as decoration; trade grew between city-states.





Islam Mu tazilites (Shi’ite Sect) fl. 10th, 11 til centuries; rationalistic school of Islamic thought in theological disputes of period; emphasized free will, opposed divine predestination; known as believers in the ‘created Koran.’ al-Ghazali, Mohammed. Arabian philosopher, theologian of Khurasan; professor, director, college of Baghdad; opponent of rationalism; Sufi mystic, defender of Moslem orthodoxy against aristotelian thinkers; The destruction of the philosophers, The restoration of the Sciences of Religion, principal works; disputed by Averroes. Asia JAPAN. Eisai, Myoan. Founder, Rinzai branch of Zen Buddhist sect; popular with Kamakura rulers, ivarriors. Genku (Honen Shonen). Founded Jddo-shii (Pure Land) Sect of Amida Buddhism. Shinran (Shonen). Disciple of Genku, founded jodo-shhishu (True Pure Land) sect; entry into paradise based on faith alone; ethical conduct required as expression, reward of faith; most popular Buddhist sect in Japan. INDIA. Mahmud of Ghazni plundered India; ardent Moslem; destroyed temple of Shiva, Somnath 1024-26. EDUCATION Islam Nizam al-MuIk, vizier to Malik Shah, 1073-92, able administrator; founded colleges, Baghdad (Nizamiya), other large cities. Asia INDIA. Bhoja. King of central India; scholar; founded Sanskrit College, Dhar. University of Nalanda, foremost Indian university; varied faculties; libraries, lecture rooms; destroyed by Mongols.





R E L I G I O N AND EDUCATION Jalal ud-din Rumi





1223-1296 Zen Buddhist priests developed education system, Japan





Period of growing resistance to poped demands by rulers of rising ferriloriol states. The Great Schism (1378-1417) seriously weakened the papacy; two lines of popes, one at Home and one at Avignon in France, and two colleges of cardinals created untenable predicament Increasing criticism of the Church. Mysticism challenged ecclesiastical power by emphasizing individual religious experience. In education the great European universities flourished, adding new cotuses and reviving on interest in Homan law and Latin and Greek literature, Zen Buddhism spread in Japan; great libraries established there; that at the temple Shomyoji in Kanazawa (1270) contained practically all the Chinese and Japanese books then known to exist





EDUCATION Europe Founding of great colleges and universities, including Sorbonne, Paris, 1252; Lisbon, 1290; Balliol College, Oxford, 1268; Alcala, Portugal, 1293; Rome, 1303; Prague, 1348; Grenoble, 1339; Valladolid, 1346; Vienna, 1365; New College, Oxford, 1379; Heidelberg, 1386, and others. Medicine added to curriculum at University of Bologna, 1316, though montpellier remained foremost medical scliool. ITALY. Petrarch, Francesco. outstanding scholar; first great ‘man of letters’: with Boccaccio, spurred revival of interest in Latin and Greek classics: helped found chair in Greek at University of Florence; constructed first modern map of Italy. Salutati, Coluccio. As Chancellor of Florence, made study of classics fashionable. chrysoloras, Manuel. Greek scholar; gave first public lectures on classics; UTote first Greek grammar; translations of Plato and Homer; introduced Greek Literature to West; teacher of many famous humanists. Planudes Maximus. Byzantine monk and scliolar; translations from Greek into Latin; edition of Greek Anthology, long a standard work; prose collection of Aesop’s Fables important. Asia CHINA. empire-wide system of schools confined to memorization of Confucian classics, letter-svriting, and composition; high examinations given orally at Peking, primarily for selection of government officials. Chu Shih-chieh. Published textbook, Suan-hsio Chi-meng (matliematical Study introduction), 1299; influential in Japan, lost in China until 1839. Wang Ling-Iing. Author of primer used for 600 years in education. ^ • JAPAN. Zen Buddhist priests dV veloped educational system.





Ethiopia, author of Mashafa Berhan (Book of Light) Various works on lives of saints and martyrs including Life of T ekla Haymanot, great national saint of Ethiopia of 13th century RELIGION AND EDUCATION





TV \mqq \0 {of power between Ibe Connal and the Pope lesnlted in the PiagmaUc Sweden of Bouiges, 1438, giving the Council control. This was reversed in 1461 by jjj France, who succeeded in reestablishing the Pope as head of the Church but Itrininq control of secular activities for the crown. Hamananda, great religious leader India, attempted to unite Hinduism and Islam. Education in renaissance Europe reLcted the growth of humanism and aimed toward the development of the individual. Emphasis was placed on social responsibility and good citizenship rather than on preparation for ‘life after death. Invention of printing from movable type increased tremendously Iho standardized accuracy and availability of information and stimulated the growth of libraries and universities.





EDUCATION Europe ITAVf. Villorino da Fellre, Humanist and educator; boarding school at Mantua; humanities taught; close contact between teacher and pupils, novel approacli; adaptation of teaching to need and ability of pupil. Guarino da Verona. Humanist and teacher, Ferrara; translated Greek and Latin classics, wrote Latin grammar. Valla, Lorenzo. Humanist scliolar; translated Herodotus and Thucydides into Latin; considered father of modern critical scholarship in field of history; proved Donation of constantine a forgery. Bessarion. Byzantine humanist; cardinal of Church; introduced neoplatonism to Italy; his collection of Greek manuscripts forms nucleus of St. Mark’s Library, Venice. Gaza, Theodorus of Thessalonica. Greek scholar, Ferrara; wrote standard textbook on Greek grammar. Nicholas V. Pope, humanist sdiolar; librarian for Cosimo de Medici, Florence, 1444; collector of manuscripts; founder of Vatican Library, 1450. NETHERLANDS. Agricola, Rodolphus (Huysman) Humanist scholar; taught classical literature at Heidelberg; opposed scholasticism; spread culture of renaissance throughout Germany. SPAIN. Mebrissensis. 1444-1522. Scholar; studied in Italy; introduced Greek at Seville, Salamanca, Alcala. HUNGARY. bibliotlteca Corvina, library of 10,000 manuscripts and books illuminated by Italian artists; Mathias Corvinus (1458-1490) great patron of learning. Asio INDIA. Moslem College or Madrasah at Bidar established by Muhammed Shah III at suggestion, of outstanding prime minister Mahmud Gavan, a Persian; buildings contained library of 3,000 volumes, quarters for professors and students, mosque, and lecture rooms.





EDUCATION





Europe Erasmus, Desiderius. Foremost scholar of day; taught at Cambridge, England, 1510-14, attempted to substitute true classical knowledge for empty scholasticism of time; Latin, international language; recognized importance of history, geography, science. Bugenhagen, Johann. German Protestant reformer and educator; called ‘Father of German volksschule, reorganized schools and churches in nortliern Germany, carrying out Luther’s ideas; also reorganized University of Copenhagen and Danish churches and schools as Lutheran institutions. melanchthon, Philipp. Humanist, interested in Latin secondary schools; reorganized schools of soutliern and central Germany, carrying out ideas of Luther with University of Wittenberg as center; Report or Book of Visitation, first scliool survey report. Linacre, Thomas (or Lynaker) English humanist and physician; founded Royal College of Physicians in London, 1518; wrote Latin grammar; translated Aristotle and Galen into Latin; founded readerships in medicine at Oxford and Cambridge. Budaeus, Guillaume. Celebrated humanist scholar of France; royal librarian, 1522; modem research methods. Vives, Juan Luis. Spanish humanist, philosopher, logician; De causis corruptarum artium, one of the outstanding works on education, 1531. Dolet, Etienne. French scholar and printer; issued commentarii linguae latinae, 1538, great influence on French Renaissance; translations of Bible and Axiochus into French issued by his press resulted in his execution. Reuchlin, Johann. 1455-1522. German humanist and scliolar; first Hebrew grammar written by Christian, 1506; led humanists vs. clericals in opposing burning of Hebrew books; Greek translations. Colet, John. English theologian, ■ classical scholar, Iiumanist; introduced new learning into English secondary schools; founded St. Paul s,





AND EDUCATION First Jesuit mission in Florida





EDUCATION Europe GERMANY. Storm, Johannes. Scholar and pre-eminent educator; founded, 1537, die Strasbourg Gymnasium; system of graded readings and classes became basis of European secondary schools; influenced by humanists; taught classics, wrote texts; exceedingly influential. ENGLAND. Under Elizabeth, 1558, sdiool instruction narrotvly religious with strict conformity to established Church: fines imposed upon employers of ‘unsound’ sdioolmastcrs; protestantism not synonymous with tolerance or freedom of thought, speech, or teaching. Ascham, Roger. Humanist, sdiolar, educator; wote The scholemastcr, pub. 1570, treatise on teaching of Latin, urging use of double-translation methods. Muicaster, Richard. Scholar and headmaster at two great English sdiools. Merchant Taylor s and St. Paul’s; educational theory in The Positions, 1581, and The elerncnlaric, 1582; influential representative of Sense Realist Sdiool. Recorde, Robert, cl 5 10-58. Madicmatician; texts on arithmetic, geometry, astronomy had important influence on science education. ITALY. Aquaviva, Claudio. 15431615. Jesuit teadier; author of Ratio, basis of all Jesuit education. SPAIN. Ponce de Leon, Pedro. CI520-84. benedictine monk, first recorded teacher of the deaf. Colloquies, 1519, Latin reading book by Erasmus banned by Council of Trent. First newspaper printed in Venice, 1563. Founding of universities of Leyden, 1575: Mexico, 1551; San Marcos de Lima, 1551; St. Thomas Aquinas of Santo Domingo, 1558; Rugby Sdiool. 1567; and Merdiant Taylor s Sdiool, 1561.





Sdenlific ejcperimentation forced a change from a lerracentric to a heliocentric concept of the universe. The unity of christianity, symbolized by one universal Church, was now upset by the appearance of many Protestant sects. The international viewpoint of catholicism and the theoretical unity of the Holy Roman Empire came into conflict with the nationalism oi the Protestant groups. Opposition to the Jesuits was seen in the development of Jansenism. Pope Gregory XV united missionary activities of the Church. Japan, having eliminated christianity, saw a revival of Shinto faith. Passage of the massachusetts law of 1642 in America marked the beginning of legislation lor education by the state in english-speaking countries.





EDUCATION





Europe ENGLAND. Bacon, Francis. contribution to education in his Novum Organum, 1620, advancement of Learning, 1605, and New Atlantis, 1627; study of nature basic to all scientific progress; gave importance to experimentation as well as observation; applied spirit of free inquiry to field of science, assuming end to be for practical rather than metaphysical purposes. Selden, John. 1584-1654. Jurist; scholar; one of most erudite men of period; origins of British Law; History of Tithes, 1618, anticlerical. Bodleian Library opened at Oxford University, 1622; has received copy of every book published in Britain; vast, valuable manuscript collection. BOHEMIA. Comenius, John. Moravian educator and theologian; leading pioneer in educational reform and ecumenical endeavor; teaching in vernacular, related to everyday e.xperiences; worked for universal system of education, offering equal opportunities to women; Didactica magna, 162832, contains his proposals; referred to as ‘father of modern educational theory and practice’; believed in worldwide uniformity of texts. GERMANY. Ratke, Wolfgang. Senserealist; innovator; conducted experimental school at Anstalt. NETHERLANDS. Erpenius, Thomas. (Van Erpe) Orientalist; one of most celebrated scholars of day. AMERICAN COLONIES. massachusetts Law of 1642 ordered all diildren be taught to read; Law of 1647 provided for public education with school and teacher; Harvard College founded, 1636; first American Latin Grammar School, Boston, 1635; first public library, Virginia.





Asia Tokugawa shoguns, anxious to promote education, employed priests to make copies of Chinese and Japanese books; however, no one outside ranks of Buddhist priesthood could become public teacher.





1675-1708 Japan. Chinese classics edited and printed; increased education





an energetic program of education, and the retarded agricultural methods modernized. The want of industries might be met by borrowing and applying Western techniques. Russia possessed in abundance the coal, iron, and other resources for a machine industry. ‘Russia,’ Napoleon prophesied in 1817, ‘will become the ruler of the world.





. Period oi prejudice cmd inlolerance was evidenced by acts passed in England io insure acceptance of the established Church and in France by the massacre of the Vaudois, 1655, and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685. In China, K ang Hsi granted freedom of religion to the Jesuits, 1692, but in India non-moslems were persecuted. The increased interest in science resulted in establishment of academies in the leading European countries. outstanding work in education was done by August Froncke in Germany. Jean de la Salle created the largest and most influential teacWng order in France. In Japan, feudal chiefs competed in establishing schools and employing lay scholars as teachers.





90. English missionary in massachusetts, called ’Apostle of the Indians’; translated Bible into Algonquin, entitled Natick, 166163, first bible printed in America; Indian Primer, 1669, excellent source. EDUCATION Europe Founding of University of Halle, Germany, 1694; outstanding faculty, introduction of science, mathematics, classics, philosophy, using German language. Scientific academies founded; Florence, 1657; Royal Society, London, 1662; Imperial Academy, Germany,’





1662; Academy of Sciences, France, 1666; and Natiomal observatory established at Greenwich, 1675. GERMANY. Francke, August. Theologian and educator; founder of Pietism; established first ‘institution, ’ school for poor children, a Latin school-gymnasium for well-to-do, and piidagogium for children of nobility; important attempt to introduce senserealism into schools (independent of Comenius) Semler, associated with Francke, first used term ‘realschule’ in connection with school at Halle; practical studies; wrote teacher’s training manual, 1697. FRANCE, de la Salle, Jean Baptiste. Founder of ’institute of the Brothers of the Christian scliools’ for elementary education, Rouen, 1684, which provided free elementary and religious instruction in vernacular for children of working classes; Conduct of Schools, guide for order. F6nelon, Francois. A founder of education for women; author of On Education of Girls; advocated education by first-hand observation and direct experience. ENGLAND. All legislation relating to education based on English poor laws; compulsory apprenticeship of cliildren of poor, vocational training in trades, public authorities required to provide these from local funds (colonies followed example); establishment of Church charity schools began in whitechapel, London, 1680; Conformity Act of 1662 drove Dissenters from teaching in schools, but courts in 1670 disavowed position, and rnore schools were founded. Milton, John. Influenced education in England and New Englan d; course of study. Of education, 1644, proposed useful subjects and use of vernacular as opposed to older classical preoccupation of Latin grammar schools; attempt at sense-realism. American Colonies Schools established in New England colonies. New York, and Pennsylvania; College of William and Mary chartered in Virginia, 1692.





1714-70 ■ Education ’of po er supported by taxation Bentley, Richard





EDUCATION Europe ENGLAND. Reading instruction created a public for newspapers, pamphlets (tracts), and books, stimulated desire for knowledge; education of poor remained only form of teaching supported by taxation. Bentley, Richard. Critic and philologist; largely responsible for high standards of textual criticism; great English classical scholar; The Epistles of Phalaris, exposure of 2nd century forgery, most celebrated work. Dilworth, Thomas, d. 1780. Author of most famous textbook of period, A New Guide to English Tongue, published 1740; wrote schoolmaster s Assistant, 1743. GERMANY. Hecker, Julius. Educator; pupil of Francke; opened first distinct Realschule in Berlin, 1747; practical courses in preparation for trades or mercantile career offered; laid foundation for Prussian advancement of scientific and technical education; first Seminary for Teachers in Prussia, founded 1738. University of Gottingen founded, 1737, center of modem scientific spirit in Germany, second only to Halle. First technical scliool. School of Mines, opened in Brunswick, 1745. NETHERLANDS. Boerhaave, Hermann. Dutch physician and chemist; important teacher, used clinical method for first time at University of Leiden. RUSSIA. Moscow University founded by Peter the Great, 1705. Asia CHINA. Chang T ing-yu. Joint editor of Ming Chi Kang Niu, history of Ming Dynasty; author of many scholarly works, encyclopedias, etc.; important educational influence. American Colonies American philosophical Society founded by Benjamin Franklin in philadelphia, pennsylvania, 1743; Yale College, New Haven, connecticut, 1701; University of pennsylvania





Western Europe FRANCE. Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet). Master satirist, philosopher, dramatist, historian; outstanding figure in ‘Age of enlightenment (sometimes termed ‘Age of Voltaire’); influenced by Newton and Locke; exerted powerful anticlerical influence. Rousseau, Jean Jacques. Known for ‘back to natiure’ philosophy; hastened cult of romanticism; author of influential The Social Contract, 1762, and Emile, a treatise on education. Diderot, Denis. encyclopedist, philosopher; edited famous encyclopedic, 28 vols., 1751-72; witten with assistance of d’alembert, Voltaire, montesquieu, Rousseau, Helv^tius, Buffon, and others. Quesnay, Fransois. Formulated basic theory of physiocrats. Condorcet, Marquis de. mathematician, social philosopher; views typical of period





The Sodety of Jesus CJesuits) ceased to exist in the Catholic world with an order for then suppression by Pope Clement XIV. 1773. Given asylum by Frederick in Prussia and Catherine in Russia, they conUnued to work and teach in those countries. Kant, though he later became the spearhead of a great German religious revival, wrote the final philosophical defense of agnoslidsm in Ws Critique of Pure Reason, 1781. The United Slates saw a break with the Anglican Church, the rise of the Methodist Church, and the success of revival meetings. The great educator of the period was Johann Peslalozzi, considered the founder of modem educational methods. Sanskrit College founded at Benares, India, 1791.





Chauncy, Charles. 1705-87. Most influential clergyman (next to Edwards, his opponent) in New England; leader of ‘Old Lights, liberals in theological doctrinal disputes following Great Awakening: opposed establishment of Anglican bishopric in American colonies; patriot during Revolution; universalist following war. Backus, Isaac. 1725-1806. Leader of New England Baptists; champion of religious freedom; eminent religious historian. John Carroll consecrated as first Roman Catholic bishop in United States, Maryland, 1790. First Bible printed in United States, 1782. EDUCATION Europe SWITZERLAND. Pestalozzi, Johann. Great educator; considered founder of modern educational methods, primarily for elementary school level; rejected religious aim and teadiing of mere words and facts; tried instead to reduce educational process to well-organized routine based on natural development of child’s capacity to learn; experimental school, ‘l^euhof,’ at Zurich; important influence on European and American education. GERMANY. Basedow, Johann. Educator: published elementarwerk, 1774, introducing nature study and physical education as well as manual training; reforms used throughout Germany; important in establishment of realistic training. Adelung, Johann. 1732-1806. Grammarian; -wrote dictionary of High German. Grimm, Jakob and Wilhelm. inaugurated great German Dictionary, first volume, 1752. FRANCE. La Chalotals, Louis. 170185. Magistrate and author of d Education Nationale, 1763, called education essentially a civil affair; real purpose of education to prepare citizens; influenced policy of relation of education to government; praised by Voltaire.





Ep6e, Charles Abbe. 1712-89. Jansenist teacher of deaf-mutes; developed manual system of communication and founded first school for deaf in Paris, 1760; invented sign language universally used by deaf; published treatise on method, 1776. First school for blind in world founded by Valentin Hauy, Paris, 1784. ENGLAND. Founding of British Museum, 1753; government purchased nucleus of collection from Sir Hans Sloane. Bell, Andrew. 1753-1832. superintendent of orphan asylum in Madras India, 1789; developed monitorial system, set forth in pamphlet, Experiment in education, London, 1797; organized system of schools teaching principles of established Church. Ralkes, Robert. 1735-1811. Printer of GloucesterJournal; advocated Sunday School idea; established all over England; adopted in United States in 1796 in Hanover County, Virginia, and later throughout country. Singleton and Fox opened first adult school, in Nottingham, 1798. DENMARK. established first state nonnal school, 1789. United States Secular subjects modified the previous religious emphasis, though religion remained part of curriculum; social usefulness urged as part of 18th century ideal of public-spirited man. Kind and quality of education depended in colonies on national origin of settlers, religion, section of country, and avail ability of trained teachers; only in. massachusetts and connecticut was education a ■ public concern. Noah webster’s famous blue-backed American Spelling Books, 1783, used as texts. Johnson, Samuel. First president of Anglican King’s College (Columbia university), 1756-63.





RELIGION Europe GERMANY. schleiermacher, Friedrich. philosopher, Protestant tlieologian, Moravian Church; author, Christian Dogma According to the fundamental Principles of the evangelical Church, 1821-22, an important theological work attempting to reconcile theories of modem society with religion. Baader, Franz. 1765-1841. philosopher and mystic: famed Roman Catliolic thinker. ENGLAND. Two-thirds of Welsh protestants seceded from Anglican Church, 1811. Bourne, Hugh. 1772-1852. Founder, Primitive Methodists, 1807; outdoor revival services; within his lifetime, 110,000 members. United States Carroll, John. Roman Catholic Jesuit; cleigyman; opponent of English control of Catholic Church in America; first archbishop of Baltimore; founded Catholic educational institutions, including Georgetown University. Cheverus, Jean. 1768-1836. French Roman Catholic clergyman; outstanding first bishop of Boston, 1810-23. Ballou, Hosea. 1771-1852. Foremost universalist leader; founder and editor, universalist Magazine, 1819. Albright, Jacob. 1759-1808. Founder, evangelical association, later evangelical Church, branch of Methodist; elected bishop at first annual conference, 1807. Campbell, Alexander. 1788-1866. Founder, Disciples of Christ, offshoot o Baptists, 1809, in Pennsylvania; periodical, Christian Baptist, 1826; now over 2 million members. Asia japan, kurozumi Munefado. Founder, Kurozumi sect, first of modem popular Shinto sects; patriotism stressed; large following.





EDUCATION Europe GERMANY. Humboldt, Karl Wilhelm von. philologist, educator; Prussian minister of education, directed and reorganized secondary and higher education, largely following pestalozzi’s ideas; a Founder, University of Berlin, 1810; one of great liberal reformers (with Stein and Hardenberg); standardized courses; expert Kavi, ancient language of Java; brother of Alexander. Herbert, Johann. philosopher, educator; influenced by Pestalozzi and Fichte; emphasized importance of relating new concepts to experience; stressed need for moral education; wrote application of Psychology to Science of education, Froebel, Friedrich. Founder, kindergarten system; founded first school and introduced system, 1816; stressed good surroundings, self-activity; important work, menschenerziehung (Education of Man), 1826. Gesenius, Wilhelm. 1786-1842. Orientalist; one of greatest Hebrew and biblical scholars; Hebrew Grammar, biblical commentary. Kurtz of Munich made first attempt to educate cripples in specially adapted schools, 1832. SWITZERLAND. Fellenberg, Philipp. agricultural educator; at estate ‘HofsvyP near Bern, 1799, put into practice theory of combining farm training and well-rounded education; first vocational (manual labor) school established, 1816; orphan asylum, 1804; basis for agricultural and industrial education today. FRANCE. Braille, Louis. Inventor of Braille system of printing and svriting for the blind, 1825. Dombasle, Christophe. 1777-1843. established first model farm and agricultural school in France, 1822: improved plough.





United States First high school founded in Boston, 1821, called ‘English Classical School’; first land grant school opened in Ohio, 1802, by Act of Congress; school lands tax free; founding of University of Virginia; 1819, crowned Thomas jefferson’s efforts for education by the state. Clinton, De Witt. Political leader of New York State: organized New York Free School Society, 1805; urged upon legislature establishment of tax-supported common schools; set up teacher-training program; first state aid in United States to academies to promote teacher education, 1827. Gallaudet, Thomos. 1787-1851. Founded first free school for deaf in the United States, 1817, at Hartford, Connecticut; trained teachers. Da Ponte, Lorenzo. 1749-1838. Italian librettist (for Mozart); pioneer in spreading Italian culture in the United States, taught at Columbia University, JJ.25^





Asia INDIA. Brahman Samaj. Society of lievers in Brahman, the Supreme frit, organized by Ram Mohan Roy, 50; belief in good deeds, no dogma, rsonal relationship to God, and Tch for truth; referred to as Hindu litarian Church. JAPAN. Nakayama Miki. 1789-1887. unded.faith-healing sect, TenrI, most pular modern Shinto sect. CHINA. Elijah Bridgman, first lerican Protestant missionary, 1830. DUCATION Americas UNITED STATES. Mann, Horace. msidered the outstanding pioneer of nericau public school system; estabhed conception of education as uni, rsal, nonsectarian, free; organized tools into state system; published annual reports, real contributions . aims and purposes of education; ught for liberal taxation, increase,11 teachers’ salaries; organized three normal schools, 1839-40; introduced pestalozzian reform; president, Antiocli College. Holbrook, Josiah. 1788-1854. Founder, lyceum movement, with work in adult education, 1828; 3,000 lyceums established between 1820 and 1860 tltroughout country. Carter, James. 1795-1845. responsible for massacliusetts Law of 1827 Avhich marked beginning of public high school; pioneer in developing public normal schools. Blackwell, Elizabeth. 1821-1910. Physician; founded N.Y. Infirmary and College for Women; first school for nurses. mcguffey’s Readers, 1836-57. CHILE. Bello, Andres. 1781-1865. intellectual leader; head. Chilean education; wrote texts; helped establish normal school, Santiago, 1840. JAPAN. Students admitted free of charge to scliools supported by feudal chiefs. reverential affection united teacher and pupil. conservative scholars, attempting to check occidental learning, instituted restrictive measures. 18.39-40.





1874. Historian; creator of French primary school system through his support of Law of 1833 while Minister, Public instruction, 1832-37. Falloux law, 1850, extended Catholic influence in education through legislation. ENGLAND. Brougham, Henry Baron; 1778-1868. Proposed educational reforms: a founder. Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge and of University of London, 1836; wrote observations on Education of the People, 1825; leader in struggle for national education; called English ’Mann.’ Arnold, Thomas. 1795-1842. Introduced monitorial system and independent thought at Rugby School; liberal thinker. Owen, Robert. 1771-1858. Social reformer; contributed to education by founding infant school for poor children of mill and factory towns. Macaulay, Thomas B., lord. 1800





59. Historian: proposed nationalization of education in Parliament address, 1847, holding it to be the right and duty of the State to provide for tlie education of the common people.’ GERMANY. Grimm, Jakob. outstanding philologist, one of founders of comparative philology; wrote German Grammar, 1819-37, German Mythology, 1835. Liebig, Justus. Scientist; instituted first university laboratory instruction in chemistry in world at Giessen, 1826. NORWAY. Aasen, Ivor. Lexicographer; distinguished for having standardized Nonvegian dialects and created a national speech (Landsmaal); Grammar, 1848, Dictionary, 1850. DENMARK. Grundfvig, Nikolai. Writer and educator; founder, Danish Folk School; chamption of education for the masses,,





1801-90 Compulsory education established, • England





1873 Ministry of Education established





1874 Education increased in Egypt





GERMANY. Kulturkampf. Name given to conflict between the government under Bismarck and the Roman Catholic Church to determine power of Church in state affairs, 1871; May Laws, 1873, state assumed supervision over education of clergy in attempt to break down school system of the Church; discarded, 1887. Dellinger, Johann. Leader, Old Catholic movement; interested in Catholic Church independent of state; opposed papal infallibility, 1869. ENGLAND. Newman, John Henry. Cardinal, Roman Catholic Church; a founder of Oxford Movement; published Traci 90, 1841, demonstrating the thirty-nine Articles were consistent with Catholicism; joined Church, 1845: Apologia pro viia sua, 1864, religious autobiography; Grammar of Assent, 18/0, set forth religious logic of belief; influential. Agopemone. Religious community of men and women holding all goods m common; founded, cl850, by Henry rince (1811-99) at Spaxton; sect metimes called Lampeter Brethren.





Middle East. Roligion founded and Jed (1817-92) in 18 Sahai (1844!;92r’ on emphasis plac “ s •”<! religious thn universality allfoUn, °“glrt and education I SiS d V„i«d s«.”.





Young, Brigham. Leader of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons); led settlement at Salt Lake City; supreme control of theocratic, cooperative organization; territorial governor, superintendent of Indian Affairs for territory of Utah. Hecker, Isaac. 1819-88. Roman Catholic founder of Paulist Fathers (missionary Priests of St. Paul the Apostle), 1858; founded Catholic World. Eddy, Mary Baker. Founder of Christian Science Church, 1866; author of Science and Health, 1875, guide to religion’s faith-healing ideas; founder. Journal of Christian Science, 1883. Russell, Charles Taze. 1852-1916. Founder, russellites, 1872, Pittsburgh, pennsylvania (known since 1931 as jehovah’s Witnesses); moved to Brooklyn, New York, 1909. Einhorn, David. 1809-79. Jewish theological writer and leader of reform movement within Judaism in the United States. EDUCATION Europe ENGLAND. Compulsory education for all established, 1870; first money grants to evening schools for adult education; Girton College for Women, Cambridge, 1869. Manning, Henry. 1808-92. Roman Catholic Cardinal; greatly expanded education for poor; strongly resisted Catholic participation in Anglican universities, opposing Cardinal Newman. Sweet, Henry. 1845-1912. Pioneered modern scientific phonetics; History of English Sounds, 1874, landmark. ITALY. Cavour, Camillo, conte di. 1810-61. Prime minister; established schools, promoted public education. Middle East Bustani al-Buirus. Lebanese scholar, educator; translated, with Eli Smith, Bible into Arabic; compiled Arabic dictionary: wrote encyclopedia. circumference of Knowledge, six vol,UTnes;„fonnded..schnol:„Hnjuiist. ^





United States Morrill Act of 1862 provided for land-grant colleges; purpose to stimulate education in agriculture and mechanic arts; grant of 30,000 acres of land to each state for each senator and representative: National DeafMute College, only institution of higher education for deaf in world, founded, 1863 (later named Gallaudet College): trade and industrial schools established; Hampton Institute, Virginia, opened agricultural school, 1868. Barnard, Henry. 1811-1900. Referred to as Scholar of the Awakening’; position in connecticut and Rhode Island corresponded to Mann’s in Massachusetts; first United States commissioner of education, 1867-70; initiated teachers’ institute movement, 1839. Sheldon, Edward A. 1823-97. Introduced pestalozzian methods and ideas into country through New York state schools. Peabody, Elizabeth. 1804-94. Opened first english-speaking kindergarten in United States, Boston, 1861; studied with Froebel; established first kindergarten Training School, 1868-69. Asia CHINA. First education along Western lines given by Roman Catholic missionaries who founded a college for the education of native priests, 1852; also founded primary and high school for benefit of converts only: Protestant missions followed suit, but education offered to all interested students; Christian and non-christian universities and medical schools established by missionary societies; education for girls in special schools; two colleges opened, primarily for study of languages, 1861, at Peking and Canton. JAPAN. Government established in Yedo institution called bandshoshirabe-dokoro (‘place for studying foreign books’) for study of Occidental languages; Ministry of Education established, 1871, and state assumed main burden of education of all classes of population; attendance at primary.schools^cpmnulsory.,





1839-1915 Belgium. Secular education introduced





N AND EDUCATION ramakrishna





1863-1902 Chang Chih-tung, viceroy, China’s Only Hope or exhortation to Learning, advocated reform of educational system University of Tokyo





pvarishna, famed Hindu mysUc, having been ass^ialed with various religions, prouniversality of all under God. Swami vivikananda, his disciple, preached ‘^^ °Ecrvice as the most noble of aspiraUons. Abdu Muhammad, renowned Moslem uTv advocated the reawakening of a religious spirit to bring about social reforms in n Pope Uo XUI opened the Vatican archives to scholars. progressive innovations in of educaUon were suggested by Francis Parker. Charles Eliot, and Hermann ^liiohcms Howard University for Negroes received its first grant, and the CarUsle School to ladians ’was established, 1879. Schools spedalizing.in manual training and education io! crippled children were founded.





Cabrini, St. Frances Xavier. 18501917. Founder, Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus; order originated in Italy and flourished in the United States; called ‘Mother Cabrini.’ EDUCATION United States Parker, Francis W. Originated Quincy movement emphasizing progressive educational principles, including learning by doing, social activities, and teaching of science; founded Chicago Institute, later Scliool of education, University of Chicago; influenced by German schools and Herbartian system; valuable pioneer work led to improvements in curriculums and teacher training. Eliot, Charles W. President, Harvard University, whicli grew from small college to great modern university during his tenure; introduced notable reforms; curriculum enriched, elective system extended, written examinations required; edited Harvard Classics (Five Foot Shelf) whidi increased range of adult education. Dewey, Melvil. 1851





1931. Library pioneer; originator of Dewey decimal system; established first school for training librarians, at Columbia College. Washington, Booker T. Famed educator; organizer of Tuskegee Institute, a school for Negroes in Alabama; expanded, developed the institution; lectured ■widely; author of many books. General. polytechnic at Washington University, St, Louis, 1880, forerunner of manual training high schools; many others followed, including The New York Trade School, 1881, for building trades. Tuskegee Institute for Negroes founded, 1881, as normal school; called Normal and Industrial Institute, 1893-1937. Free kindergarten, 1878, and Visiting Guild for Education of Crippled Children, 1892, founded by Felix -Adler and Ethical Culture Society.





Europe GERMANY. Ebbinghaus, Hermann. Psychologist; pioneer in study of memory and learning; invented completion test for purposes of testing children’s intelligence, 1897; used in many countries. General. Ninety per cent of pupils graduating from Kurtz Foundation for Education of Crippled Children, 1877-1902, were able to earn their living. SPAIN. Giner de los Rios, Francisco. Educator and philosopher; founded institution Libre de Ensenanza, school which sought to develop spirit of free inquiry; reformed teaching methods in Spain; great influence. RUSSIA. Borodin, Aleksandr. Musician, physician; founded school of medicine for women. BELGIUM. Introduced secular education throughout country, 1879. ENGLAND. London School Board established schools for crippled children, 1898.





England. Education Act





Germany. Papal encyclical controversy 1910 Russia. Church property confiscated Education placed emphasis on industna, scientific, technological progress Bogdanov, A.-;





EDUCATION -1905





China. New system of educationhu Shih





17. Americas UNITED STATES. James, William. Philosopher; most influential thinker of period in America; pragmatist; radical empiricism; brilliant and epoch-making Principles of Psycholop, 1890, Pragmatism, 1907, The Meaning of Truth, 1909, many others. Dewey, John. philosopher, educator; instrumentalism; effective use of science for good of man; democracy, primary ethical value (see Education). James, Henry. Novelist, essayist; stylist; psychological characterizations. Others. F. Scott Fitzgerald, Sinclair Lewis, Theodore Dreiser, novelists; Edith Wharton, short-story writer; Edna St. Vincent Millay, poet. NICARAGUA. Dario, Rub6n. One of the great poets in Spanish language; leader, modern movement in Latin America. CHILE, Neruda, Pablo (Neftali Ryes). Surrealist poet; innovator in literary and social thought; influential. MEXICO. Azuela, Mariano. Los de Abajo (The Underdogs) 1916, early realistic novel. PERU. Chocano, Jos6. Leading poet; iQuien Sabel 1913; important pro-Indian approach. Middle Eost TURKEY. Tewfik, Fikret (Mehmed Tetvfik). Poet, metricist; founder, modern Turkish school of poetry; introduced sonnet; editor, therwet-ifiinun, illustrated periodical;jRM6a6-iShikeste (The Broken Lute) Khdiid, Ziya. outstanding writer of prose and fiction in Turkish literature; a founder of modern literary novel in Turkey, with Mdzvi we-Siyah (Blue and Black), Bir Yazyn Taikhi (Story of Summer). / Manfaluti al-Muslafa Lutft. Egyptian of turkish-arab descent; Tears.





Following the Hevolution of 1917 the Soviet Umon attacked leligion as homful to the development and progress of the country and dissolved the reli^ous orders. The U.S.SJt. began an intensive progrcon of nationwide education and promoted activities in the ails. The Soviet system of slale-conliolled education was dormnated throughout by a determmauon to propagandize and indoctrinate in a spirit oi uncompromising realism.^ In the United Slates, John Pewey made importont contributions in the field oi progressive education. Hu Shih, by turning the popular Mandarin dialect into a literary language, the Pari Hun, created an oJfldal written language for the sdiools of China.





education United Stales By 1910 the number of public hi] schools exceeded 10,000 and total nui ber o£ p-upils attending public schoc reached 17,813,000. Thoiatein Vebl. wrote important work, The High Learning in America, 1918. Dewey, John. philosopher and ed cator; influenced abandonment au orimrian methods, encouragi emphans on learning through expe mentation and practice; importa ^utnbution to progressive scho movement throughout world; Demc racy and education, 1916.





Flexner, Abraham. 1866Educator whose report for Carnegie Foundation, 1910, Medical Education in the United States and Canada, hastened much-needed reforms in standards, organization, and curricula of American medical schools; director. Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, 1930-39; important %vorks. Dillard, James H. contributed much to improvement of Negro education and interracial relations; Dillard University, New Orleans, named lor him. Hall, Edwin. 1855-1938. Physicist; wrote textbooks and manuals which organized teaching of secondary school physics. Adler, Cyrus. 1863-1940. Scholar, editor; librarian, smithsonian Institution; founder, American Jewish Historical Society, editor, Jewish Encyclopedia. Berry, Martha MeChesney, 18661942. Opened schools for underprivileged mountain children of Georgia. Asio CHINA. New system of education adopted, 1905; modeled on Western systems; Medical School founded, Peking, 1906; thousands of temples converted for use as schools; 1,100 graduates of Tsing Hua College sent to United States for advanced study, 1911-27, and many other students sent to study in Japan and Europe; by 1910, over 200 daily, weekly, or monthly journals (including Peking Gazelle, world’s oldest newspaper) were exerting considerable influence on public opinion. JAPAN. By 1905, 94.93 per cent of eligible boys and girls attended elementary schools; in 1909 there were 18,160 common elementary schools and 9,105 with additional special training; two imperial universities at Tokyo Kyoto; at Tokyo in 1909 there were 2.880 students and six colleges of law, medicine, engineering, literature, science, and agricultural; postgraduate courses, a quarterly journal published, and scientific research carried on; public education secular, no religious training permitted in schools; Imperial Library, by 1909, had over half a mil





Europe ENGLAND. Education Act of 1902 abolished boards, placing elementary and secondary education in hands of statutory committees of borough and county councils. For first time in England, provision for secondary education was recognized as duty of the state and brought under public control; in five years the number of secondary schools doubled. ITALY. Montessori, Maria. Educator and physician; originator of method of education for pre-school child: first woman to receive medical degree in Italy, 1894; opened first case det bambini (houses for children), Rome, 1907: development of child’s initiative tlirough individual freedom of action, improvement of sense perception through training, and development of coordination through exercises and games; method used in United States and Europe. Gentile, Giovanni. Organizer and Minister of education, 1922-24; urged self-realization of individual. RUSSIA. Emphasis in education after triumph of communism was placed on need for industrial, scientific, and military progress and schools of engineering, research, science, medicine, and teacher training tvere established: art galleries and museums were opened to the public; large community recreation and adult education centers established; ballet, music, and arts fostered, all dominated by the state ideology. Bogdanov, A. (Alesander Mainovaki). Philosopher; leader in education and ‘proletarian culture’ movement.





Middle East TURKEY. John Dewey prepared report for reorganization of schools, 1924., ‘ INDIA. Founding of Osmania University, Hyderabad, 1918, under British; gave instruction in arts, science, laws, Moslem theology, medicine, engineering, , and education; teachertraining college and a women’s college. PHILIPPINES. Bureau of Education





Religious revival in United States neo-orthodoxy, Niebuhr-^1935 Committee for White House Conference on Education





1956; report G. 1. Bill of Rights for education ■ Nicaragua. Central University founded





1950 Pope John XXIII (li58) called oecumenical Cou: » tois Compulsory educationbf ® ^ ^ ^^ ^^





^1936 ^°™P“lsory education





1926 China. Sharp increase in higher education India. Attempt to raise literacy rate Pakistan. Education system established





development of poliomyelitis vaedne, 1954. oppenheimer, J. Robert. 1904Physicist. ■feller, Edward. 1908Physidst. Menninger Foundation, established 1941, for research training and public education in psychiatry ■ Asia JAPAN. Yukawa, Hideki. Physidst; predicted e.\istence of meson; Nobel, 1949. INDIA. Bose, Sir Jagadis Chandra. Physidst; invented cfescogi-aph, device





la EjJtopc sharp conflicts developed between the totalitarian governments and the churches, renewing World War II, a rise in membership in religious organizations was evidenced in the United States. Government participation in education increased in all parts of the world. Sdcttco and technology continued to dominate Russia s school system; England extended compulsory education laws;’ China attempted a New life Movement under Chlnng and began developing a completely new system of education under the communist regime; enrollment In higher education in the United Stales doubled in less than twenty years; India end Pakistan, as well as other areas of the world, increased allcmpls to raise the literacy rate of the population.





EDUCATION UNESCO (United Nations educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). established in 1945 for purpose of furthering world peace by removing social, religious, and racial tensions: encouraging free interchange of ideas and of cultural and scientific achievements and improving and expanding education; Julian Huxley, Great Britain, served as director general, 1946-48; Jamie Torres Bodet, Mexico, 1948-52; Luther Evans, 1952-1958; Vittorino Veronese, Italy, 1958United States Following World War II, under G.I. Bill of Rights, 8,000,000 ex-service personnel received educational training; growth in population increased problems; Committee for White House Conference on education in 1956 recommended that expenditures for education be doubled within 10 years, that pay scales be doubled to attract more and better teachers; endorsed emeigency Federal aid for school construction; urged communities to seek solution to integration problems (by 1956, 250,000 Negro students had been integrated into white schools); proposed extending public health and safety services to parochial and private schools. The development of earth satellites and intercontinental missiles increased interest in science education and in the need for basic research laboratories; the growing pressure for language courses and an understanding of the lives, beliefs, and cultures of other peoples of the world extended the school curricula. Europe ENGLAND. legislation insuring fulltime compulsory education for children five to 15, passed in 1945. GERMANY. Attempted to link education with industry in a produaive union and to shape both totvard military ends; following the defeat of Hitler, a re-educating process became necessary’ with an aim toward an understanding of world responsibility and cooperation.





Asia INDIA. The main problem is one of raising tlie literacy rate of the general population; in 1941 it was estimated that about 12 per cent of the people could read: in a reorganization of the educational system, greater emphasis has been placed on primary education, svith costs shifted to private groups and local governments; at the university level, however, the central government has extended its control in order to maintain high standards: an attempt has been made to unify the language; a department of education has been established in the provinces as well as in the central government; teclinical training receiving greater emphasis. PAKISTAN. After partition, 1956, a conference tvas called to create a system of education whidi could cover the entire country and attempt to make literacy universal within 20 years; Urdu was to be the compulsory national langu.ige in tlie 6th year; othenvise, local languages could be spoken; religious education made compulsory for all Moslems in all schools. Middle East TURKEY. Law in 1928 replaced Turkish alphabet with Latin alphabet, and ■whole nation was obliged to learn it; all books, magazines were reset in new type; compulsory education instituted, 1931; metric system introduced. international or Universal Languages. Latin was used.as the international language of scholarship until the close of the Middle Ages. Frendi has been used as tlie language of diplomacy, and English has become popular as the language of trade and commerce. Attempts have been made to establish an anificial, auxiliary language for universal use; diaracterized by phonetic spelling, simplicity, and regularity of syntax and form, over 100 sudi languages have been dewed, including Volapiik, Esperanto, interlingua, Ido, nov-esperanto Occidental, Arulo, Ro, and, most successful in recent years, Basic English, developed in the 1930 s, using 850 basic English words.